Xerxes I | Hubris
“Was there a nation in Asia that Xerxes did not take with him against Greece? Was there a river, except the greatest, that his army did not drink dry?”
- Herodotus, Histories
Xerxes I, also known as Xerxes the Great, was a Persian king who ruled over the vast Achaemenid Empire from 486 BCE to 465 BCE. He was the son of King Darius I and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. This lineage protected Xerxes during his time as a prince and solidified his claim to the throne.
He was raised in the capital of Babylon and at the age of seven, began to receive his education in philosophy, math, riding, archery, and swordsmanship. The aristocratic method during this time included goals to attain wisdom, bravery, and prudence. He was given opportunities to govern and learn the bureaucracy of the capital, and empire.
At the age of 32, Darius was informed of a revolt in Egypt. The king had been preparing for a campaign to Greece at the time but shifted his planning to handle the new uprising. Before doing so, it was Persian law that a king must name his successor before embarking on such an attack. Due to Xerxes being born of Atossa, a direct descendent of Cyrus the Great, Darius named him as successor over that of his older brother. His brother protested, and when Darius passed away a few weeks later, his brother continued lobbying for the throne as the elder. Due to his lineage, Xerxes prevailed, was named king, and immediately began to consolidate power.
City-Worlds
Before we dive in, I want to take a pause and give you, our audience, a glimpse into the human population at this time. The first reason to equip you with an accurate idea of what it meant to be an ancient empire. The second reason is to correct possible perceptions that we form based on our own experience. Time and again Jon and I have sought pushback on the danger of such an application, both for your benefit and our own, and so we continue that now.
When one thinks of the term, “city”, there is an immediate association with the modern cities of today. We think of the vast metropolis, associate the probable population, and apply both to the ancient civilization in question. For example, we broadcast from a city near Indianapolis, which in 2023 had a population of around 1.9 million. Larger cities, such as Los Angeles or New York, which average a whopping 6 million people. Knowing this, it is natural to associate such totals with the ancient world. This is wrong.
The total population of Babylon during the time of Xerxes reached its height of just over 200,000 people, which today is the size of a suburb. At the time of Jesus’s birth, the city of Bethlehem under the reign of King Herod was roughly 1,500 people, which today is the size of a populated city block. As time went on, cities grew larger, with the city of Rome reaching 1-2 million at the height of the Roman Empire.
The Persian Empire during the life of Xerxes covered over 2 million square miles of land. Even with their vast army, it was almost impossible to police the borders of the empire. Instead, the empire instituted an imperial bureaucracy governed by satraps who were loyal to the king. These leaders presided over other cities within the empire. Satraps issued reports and provided wealth to the capital. If this was disrupted by barbarians (non-Persians), then an army would be sent to wipe out the invaders.
Persian, like other nations in the world, was comprised of civilized cities with bordering agricultural land. Cities traded, and sold goods and services, shipping both to other cities in and out of the empire. The largest empire at the time, it wanted for nothing, had control over its satraps, and was in a good financial state. It’s this world that Xerxes was born into, and from which he governed.
Early Successes
The consolidation of power came in the form of suppressing revolts in Babylon and Egypt, both of which were under Persian rule. Even as Xerxes assembled his armies to deal with these uprisings, his Commander and Chief of the Army, Mardonius, began to persuade him to pursue an invasion of Greece, but Xerxes first had to contend with the uprisings.
He had subjugated Babylon, despite those in his line being a friend to the city, and committed offenses against the population by removing the statue of Marduk, the primary deity. Some historians speculate that the statue, being made of pure gold, had been melted down, but this is unlikely. Though he did not worship such a deity, he had no desire to cause additional unrest. The removal of the deity would have been enough as a show of power. This, in addition to not attending the Marduk festival each year, had diminished his rule in the eyes of the city inhabitants. As a result, they revolted twice against him which resulted in an extended siege before he laid the rebellion to waste. His campaigns in Egypt turned out much the same, with his successes throughout 485 BC mounting, and his rule unquestionable.
During this time, the vast wealth of the Persian Empire was almost incalculable. Treasure stores in several major cities were growing each year, with regional satraps continuing to bring and share in the build-up of wealth. Standardized infrastructure, governance, and demonstrative shows of strength kept the empire strong and positioned for continued growth.
This – and other factors – should have dissuaded Xerxes from invading Greece which, due to its continued infighting, would not add much to the treasury. In addition, due to the landscape of Ancient Greece, there were very few strategic advantages to conquering it, other than simply extending the empire. The cost of the invasion, coupled with the resources expended to constantly supply the men and arms, defied all expectations and as a result, Xerxes was counseled heavily to disregard the endeavor and concentrate on the growth of the empire elsewhere. In the end, the memory of his father’s loss at Marathon in 490 B.C. was on his mind, and with members of his family continually reminding him of this, he constantly looked to the West. This, coupled with his early successes, convinced him that there was no other choice other than to invade and conquer Greece.
This brings us to the concept of hubris, which is defined as excessive pride, confidence, and self-importance. The latter, self-importance, was an obvious trait held by the ruler of the largest empire in the ancient world. Pride and confidence are not bad if kept in check, but given his position, Xerxes had no reason to hold back or consider the consequences of what would happen if he was unable to defeat the Greeks. In his mind, there simply was no other way the invasion could go. Instead of listening to wise counsel, he ignored the benefits of growing the vast fortune of his empire and instead embarked on an endeavor that put everything in his world in jeopardy simply because he absolutely knew he would not lose. This was hubris, and because of this hubris, Xerxes I began preparation.
Invasion of Greece
Xerxes spent nearly four years preparing for the invasion, amassing both men and resources. Herodotus and other ancient sources estimated the Persian force to be between 2-5 million men, but modern sources cite it as 100-200,000. In 481 BC, Xerxes marched his marched his army north and then west to the Hellespont, the waterway that stood between Persia and Greece. In addition to his land force, Xerxes also sent a massive fleet of 1,200 ships filled with men and supplies to rendezvous and support the overland march.
During the march, Xerxes stopped in Sardis to treat the King who lavished the emperor with riches and opulence. The celebration continued the next few days, and as it did, bad omens – such as an eclipse – began to show. Xerxes, as counseled by his spiritual advisors, ignored this and other signs that showed success was not his future. Not all ignored the signs. The leader of Sardis requested that his son be removed from service because of what he saw, which enraged Xerxes who had the man’s son pulled from the ranks and cut in half before marching his entire army between the two pieces.
Reaching the Hellespont, he commissioned engineers to build a bridge across it. After months of work, a storm destroyed the bridge he had built and washed away all the materials. To punish the sea for its disobedience, he ordered the water to receive 30 lashes from a whip, the surviving engineers to be beheaded, and dropped shackles into the water. He then ordered another bridge built which was completed in April of 480 BC. With the bridge built, the Persian forces crossed the Hellespont and marched through Thrace and Macedonia, encountering little resistance.
Marching south, the Persian army reached Thermopylae, a narrow stretch of land that lay between the mountains and the sea. There, King Leonidas of Sparta lead seven thousand men against Xerxes hordes. Such a stand was possible for two reasons. First, the landscape afforded no chance for the Spartans and other Greeks to be flanked, making the number of the Persian army count for nothing. Second, such an arrangement was ideal for hoplite – and Spartan – warfare. At this time, the whole of Spartan culture revolved around combat. Men were raised to be warriors from an early age, conditioned for war throughout their lives, and eager to fulfill the purpose found in sacrifice. The Persians did not know this and were even less concerned about Spartan fortitude when their spies reported the men of Sparta being groomed in mass by their wives with scented oils on their hair and beards before the battle. This was interpreted as a weakness. In reality, it was a preparation by the Spartans for their journey into the underworld.
The Persians met King Leonidas and his force at Thermopylae, and for three days, the small group of Greeks held off the entire Persian army. It was not until the King was betrayed did Xerxes destroyed the Spartans and even then, the sheer will shown there to resist inspired many to take up arms to defend Greece. We cover this battle in more detail in earlier seasons of the podcast, and as always, invite you to listen.
Early success in the Greek invasion overshadowed the delay by the Spartans, but the level of hubris exhibited by Xerxes was about to be tested again. The Persian and Greek naval fleets met at Artemisium and after several days of fighting, the Greeks prevailed, but not without suffering heavy losses. As Greek forces began to shrink, Persian forces moved faster. Cities that resisted were razed and pillaged for supplies and the countryside was burned. Greek forces continued to retreat and consolidate, abandoning Athens which was easily captured and burned to the ground. Greece was shirking, and as momentum increased for the Persians so did the cost of the invasion. In response to this and the confidence inspired by the loss of Athens, Xerxes sought to end the war as soon as possible by outflanking the Greeks with a naval assault and amphibious landing.
At this point in the invasion, the Greeks had pulled back and were using the landscape to dig in. Experience should have told Xerxes that even with the landing from his fleet, they would be facing a battle like the one they faced with the Spartans. This is where, again, hubris plays a part. Modern historians have speculated that the emperor could have halted his advance and reinforced his position. Supply lines were running thin, his forces were exhausted, and the terrain of Greece would have provided him the same strategic advances as it did the native Greeks. Again, Xerxes was counseled to remain and wait for strengthened supply lines and reinforcements. Again, he ignored the counsel and commenced with the land and sea invasion. There was simply no way he could lose.
As the Persian fleet advanced, they met the Greeks at the naval Battle of Salamis, where the Greek navy, led by Themistocles, inflicted significant losses on the Persian fleet, driving them back. With the naval fleet decimated, the Persians were left to advance over the land without support or supply. In addition, there was the fear that the now emboldened Greek naval would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the bridge created by the Persians, blocking any possible retreat. Due to this, a Persian general named Mardonius and Xerxes’ wife persuaded him to leave Greece and head back to Persia. The general promised that he would finish the invasion himself and bring the victory over the Greeks back to Xerxes as a prize.
Xerxes retreated to his homeland and during his journey, learned of the Battle of Plataea and the sea battle of Mycale, where his forces were annihilated In 479 BC the second invasion of Greece ended, and Xerxes, possibility humbled by the loss of his armies, a vast sum of his wealth, and his prestige, never to set foot in Greece again.
Later Life
The once-mighty Persian invasion force was now in disarray, and Xerxes focused on consolidating power within his empire and concentrating on the building of monuments, which was a common practice used by ancient kings to build prestige. Through higher taxes and tribute, he constructed the Persepolis, a magnificent palace complex that became the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire. The grandeur of Persepolis, with its imposing structures and intricate carvings, reflected the wealth and power of the Persian Empire under Xerxes. The city served as a symbol of the empire's cultural and political achievements.
Despite these attempts to redeem his reputation, Xerxes' later years were marred by internal strife and challenges to his rule. His reign witnessed a decline in the once-unified Achaemenid Empire, with satraps gaining more autonomy and rebellions erupting in various provinces. In the end, Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC by members of the court. His death marked the conclusion of a reign that, while characterized by military campaigns and architectural achievements, also faced internal discord and challenges to imperial authority.
Standing Against Evil
When looking at the life of Xerxes, there are several lessons related to the theme of this season, two of which we will concentrate on here, and the rest we will leave for the discussion, to which we invite your questions and contributions.
First, it is easy for us to pass over facts like “Xerxes burned Athens” or he “advanced”. It is easy for us because we do not take the time to consider what that means. When he burned Athens, he massacred anyone who remained in the city. Evacuations had occurred, but that doesn’t mean the city was empty. Men, women, and children were butchered. Let’s hold here for a moment to consider such horror. Though the Greeks were victorious, they paid was beyond words. Cities, towns, farms…human lives, were ended for no other reason than the pride felt by a single man. One man, one choice. The people suffered. It is our responsibility not to simply read past such things, but to remember what they meant, and the cost associated.
Second, the story of Xerxes and his life requires us to consider the fact that to understand evil, we need only look in the mirror. The plague of pride and inflated self-importance can reap unparalleled destruction on our choices, motivations, and lives. Compound such a temperament with political office or positions of corporate power, and we begin to see the same behaviors we have witnessed in our episode today. Most of us are not rulers of vast empires. In addition, we were not born into royal households. That said, we are human. Xerxes, despite his claims and the claims of others, was just a man. He was born and he died. He made choices, received counsel, and was responsible for all his behavior. We are no different.
To stand against evil requires us to recognize the traits that drove the monsters of history to do their deeds. It compels us not simply to read past them or take them lightly. It also requires us to look within and accept that all of us, regardless of status or position, have the same capacity to commit such atrocities if we do not hold ourselves accountable. The history of Xerxes cautions us to examine our intentions and in those examinations, strive to be better.
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